Question 4

Q. Should philosophy of science be taught to sci students? Justify your answer.

Posted by Shikha

Philosophy is something of an intermediate between theology and science. Like theology, it has speculations on matters as to which definite knowledge has been unascertainable. Like science, it appeals to human reason rather than to authority, whether that of tradition or that of revelation. This definition of philosophy give by Russell brings in an interesting perspective on the purpose of philosophy. The distinguishing criterion between philosophy of science and science is due to the nature and structuring of science. Science tells us what we can know, but what are the things we do not know from the ‘possible space’ remains unexplained. In this pursuit of science, the strength of defining precisely the scope of actual space of human knowledge is also a binding force to it. The application of philosophical thought to science helps in tying this knot of the actual to the possible. The beauty of knowing the possible as ever expanding and what actual can be defined from it will not only lead to acceptance of multiple realities but also would create an appreciation for the defined, the science. The perspective of philosophy when amalgamated with science will uphold familiarity of issues unbounded by threads of possibilities in conjunction with the actual. It is important to address such questions, conceptions about science rather than to insinuate them tacitly. Philosophy of science is a broad understanding ‘of’ science and ‘about’ science.  
If science has developed as a dialogue with metaphysics… then to teach science as a soliloquy in which science just talks to itself and grows entirely by self criticism is to impoverish the subject matter (Mathews, 1992, p.36)
Philosophy and Science: Science studies natural phenomena and the phenomena of society. It does not study itself. When science does reflect on itself, it becomes the philosophy of science and examines a number of philosophic questions. These questions include "What is science?" "What is scientific method?" "Does scientific truth provide us with the truth about the universe and reality?" and "What is the value of science?" This thread should not be loosened as the meekness of this relation is inversely proportional to the rise of other (pseudo scientific or ad-hoc) explanations to enter in the domain of science.
Philosophy has given birth to several major fields of scientific study. Until the 1700's, no distinction was made between science and philosophy. For example, physics was called natural philosophy. Psychology was part of what was called moral philosophy. In the early 1800's, sociology and linguistics separated from philosophy and became distinct areas of study. Logic has always been considered a branch of philosophy. However, logic has now developed to the point where it is also a branch of mathematics, which is a basic science. Science also separated from philosophy as a distinct subject of study.
Philosophy and science differ in many respects. For example, science has attained definite and tested knowledge of many matters and has thus resolved disagreement about those matters. Philosophy has not. As a result, controversy has always been characteristic of philosophy. Science and philosophy do share one significant goal. Both seek to discover the truth--to answer questions, solve problems, and satisfy curiosity. In the process, both science and philosophy provoke further questions and problems, with each solution bringing more questions and problems.
The merging of the two, the philosophy of science is concerned with the assumptions, foundations, and implications of science. The field is defined by an interest in one of a set of "traditional" problems or significance in central or foundational concerns in science. In addition to these central problems for science as a whole, many philosophers of science consider these problems as they apply to particular sciences (e.g. philosophy of biology or philosophy of physics). Some philosophers of science also use contemporary results in science to draw philosophical morals. Philosophy of science focuses on metaphysical, epistemic and semantic aspects of science. Ethical issues such as bioethics and scientific misconduct are usually considered ethics or science studies rather than philosophy of science
Although most practitioners are philosophers, several prominent scientists have contributed to the field and still do. Other prominent scientists have felt that the practical effect on their work is limited: “Philosophy of science is about as useful to scientists as ornithology is to birds,” according to physicist Richard Feynman
The principle task of philosophy of science is to analyze the methods of enquiry used in various sciences. Looking at science from a philosophical stand point allows us to look deeper and helps to uncover some deeper assumptions that are implicit in scientific practice, but remain veiled by the scientists. The job of philosophy is to question the assumptions that scientist take for granted. It is an investigation of the questions that arise from reflection upon science and scientific practice. It discusses the methods of science, issue of how science differs from non sciences, the nature of scientific theories, kinds of explanations and reasoning, discourse on reliability, objectivity, theory laden observations, traditions of philosophy etc. An immersion into this field means asking Philosophical Questions which are about science. Examples of some philosophical questions are:
1.    When is a theory confirmed by predictions?
2.    Why and how do we observe?
3.    How are theories formed?
4.    What do we mean by science and how is it different from other disciplines of study.
5.    Is Humanism a valid doctrine today?
6.    what are the different ways of knowing reality
These questions, which are central to science, are generally not considered a valid part of the science classroom discourse, however significant they are. These questions serve many purposes in terms of strengthening the ability of imagination, questioning our learning, constant thinking and rethinking. Venturing ones energy in formulating or reflecting on such questions is like establishing an epiphany with ‘knowledge’ and ‘learning’ from what surrounds us by conjecturing, seeking explanations, thinking in the larger frame, etc. Philosophy thus becomes a scientific investigation. Even pausing and thinking about the routinely used terms in science like theory, hypothesis, experiment, truth, knowledge, valid, observation, confirmation, cause-effect are useful entry points to start thinking about the vastness of their meaning and usage. As Michel Mathews puts it
“Philosophy begins when teachers and students slow down the science lesson and ask what these terms mean and what are the conditions for their correct usage”
Contextualizing the significance of philosophy of science in teaching and learning milieu will have implications for knowing about the science as one of the forms of knowledge. Contemporary discourse on making history and philosophy a part science is a move in the direction of situating the learning of science in a socio- historical context, making a contribution to the overall task of improving teaching and learning of science.
The integration of philosophy of science in the teaching and learning of science will give us a meta-cognitive lens to view science as a discipline of enquiry. The habit of questioning realities will help us distinguish reality from perspectives, truth from validity, cramming from knowing, and dependency for learning from self guided learning. With the uncovering of logical and analytic connections among concepts, ideas, theories and their particulars, the web of knowledge will expand. It will enhance critical thinking skills, with challenging tasks being made an inclusive part of our classrooms.
It can contribute to the deeper understanding of scientific subject matter. It will help us to overcome the ‘sea of meaninglessness’ as Novak stated. It will be moving away from rote learning to processes where epistemological concerns towards learning are visible. 
This connects the two cultures philosophy and science will humanize the sciences and connect them to personal, ethical, cultural and political concerns. It is developing forms of understanding as broad, integrative knowledge across disciplines.
Exploring the world with philosophical insights will have a twofold impact: first when given an opportunity to think freely in science classrooms the learners (of any age) will ask questions which scientists/ thinkers would have encountered as conceptual challenges.  Secondly, this ‘free’ exploration will lead to generation of new ideas, propositions by providing necessary thinking tools for scientific discovery.
It can improve teacher’s knowledge of the content by helping them develop an investigative eye towards the concepts and a richer knowledge base vis-à-vis the concept of study. As Lee Schulman (1986) develops the notion of Pedagogical Content Knowledge
“To think properly about content knowledge requires going beyond knowledge of facts or concepts of a domain. It requires understanding the structure of the subject matter… Teachers must not only be capable of defining for students the accepted truths in a domain. They must also be capable to explain why a particular proposition is deemed warranted, why it is worth knowing and how it relates to other propositions, both within the discipline and without, both in theory and in practice” 
Apart from knowing the content matter of science well, the teachers will be more aware of the contemporary issues surrounding science including their own understanding of the nature of science, alternative views on scientific theories and their limitations, overcoming the ‘confirmation bias’ (finding only confirming evidences to confirm the prediction being tested), going through the processes and aiming at knowledge construction by thinking with each other, theory-ladenness, inductivist fallacy, misconceptions in the curriculum, theoretical and complex ideas of Kuhn, Lakatos to form a perspective on science.  
The bread and butter of philosophy of science are questions: how is data related to phenomena, in which cases is a theory disproved, can theories be used as universal statements, do we move from data to theories or vice versa, what if the entire universe was made up of a single element? Which element would it be and why? Letting students dine on such philosophical flights will be an opportunity for establishing a community of learning because the vast array of knowledge that will be open for exploration will be a meaningful learning experience for all. Turning all stones, touching the limits of science, through open ended questioning is an epistemological experience, that learners have a right to experience. 
This relationship will help in distinguishing science from non science, which as Thadagar mentions is an essential social concern. It is important to elucidate how science differs from pseudo science in the philosophical pursuit to overcome public neglect of genuine science.
Recent research in science education has recognized the importance of history and philosophy of science. Several studies are being carried out in this direction to evaluate the proposed way of learning. One of the studies, for example, was carried out by Rodriguezl& Niazl where the objective of study was to evaluate the presentation of the Thomson, Rutherford, and Bohr models of the atom in general physics textbooks based on criteria de- rived from history and philosophy of science. Forty-one general physics textbooks (all pub- lished in the United States) were evaluated on two criteria based on Thomson's work, three on Rutherford's work, and three on Bohr's work. Results obtained show that general physics textbooks does not systematically include a history and philosophy of science perspective. Most textbooks present an inductivist perspective in which experimental details are considered to be paramount. On the contrary, a historical reconstruction of the experimental details inevitably includes: the context in which an experiment is conducted, the theoretical frame- work that guides the scientist, and alternative interpretations of data that lead to conflicts and controversies. Examples are provided to show how historical reconstructions of atomic models can provide students an opportunity to appreciate how scientists work and science progresses. It is plausible to suggest that textbook presentations based on a history and philosophy of science perspective can perhaps arouse students' interest in the subject and hence lead to greater conceptual understanding.

References:
1.    Russell, B; History of Western Philosophy, Routledge publications, 2009 (reprint)
2.    Curd & Cover, Philosophy of Science- The Central Issues, W.W. Norton & Company, 1998
3.    Mathews, M; Science Teaching: The Role of History and Philosophy of Science
4.    Slezak, P; Does Science Teaching need History and Philosophy of Science
5.    Bentley, M & Garrison, J; The Role of Philosophy of Science in Science Teacher Education, Journal of Science Teacher Education, Summer 1991,Vol 2, No 3, pp 67-71
6.    Copyright © The Association for the Education of Teachers in Science
7.    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science
8.    http://www.unexplainable.net/artman/publish/article_1182.shtml
9.    Rodriguez1, M & Niazl, M; A Reconstruction of Structure of the Atom and Its Implications for General Physics Textbooks: A History and Philosophy of Science Perspective, Journal of Science Education and Technology,  Vol. 13, No. 3, September 2004